[TOPIC 2] Cell Wall and Membrane Structure of Prokaryotes

Assalamualaikum w.b.t. 

For this topic, I think it is crucial to be able to differentiate between Gram-positive and Gram-negative organism's cell wall properties. 

Other than knowing the difference of the two type of cell walls, it is also important to know the functions and significance of each substances contained in the cell walls. For instance, teichoic acid in Gram-positive organisms and LPS in Gram-negative organisms actually have the same function in which the components contribute to the cell's antigenic specificity. 

Other than knowing the difference and functions of Gram-positive and Gram-negative cells, this topic also covers on the difference between bacteria and archaea. 

So, how to remember the cell wall visual? 
Remember the spaghetti and meatballs picture! :D 

You don't remember? 

Wait. 

I was talking about the above picture! :D 

Why are we focusing on distinguishing bacteria from archaea? 

I would say that it is because this two organisms are in the category of prokaryotes (because they do not have true nucleus and membrane bound organelles) while the other group of microbes are eukaryotes. 

Some of the differences between the two organisms that I think I should note on are : 
- The presence of peptidoglycan 
- The amino acid contained in them 
- The glycosidic bond between the sugars 
- Ester/Ether link 

Other than that, I also learned some new terms. What are they, you ask? 

It's spheroplast and protoplast! 

Protoplast is a cell that has be lysed but it is still capable of carrying out metabolism processes. 

Spheroplast is a cell that have not been completely lysed, thus some of the components of cell wall still remains. 

How do they formed? 

Spheroplast are constructed when the the cell wall has been acted on by the lysozyme, but it is not completely hydrolysed. 

Below are some of the questions that were discussed in class throughout the lesson : 

1. How does glycocalyx act as a source of nutrients?
--> What I found on the net is an example of organism, Streptococcus mutans use glycocalyx as its source of nutrient when energy storage is low. This organism has glycocalyx in the form of capsule and it will break down the glycocalyx and utilise the sugar since glycocalyx is made up of sugars called EPS. 

2. Movement of bacteria towards nutrients or a particular substance is called 'chemotaxis'. 

3. The conjugation of pili is a process where transfer of DNA occurs. However, it does not contribute to the production of new daughter cells. Instead, the plasmid contains specific genes such as resistance to a certain antibiotic and ability to produce enzyme. Thus, the recipient of the DNA transfer will obtain the traits of the donor. 

#Do remember that the transfer of DNA can only occur between the same species! 

4. How is cell wall serve as a site of action for antibiotics? 
Antibiotics have a certain mechanism to attack cells such as attacking the cell wall, nucleic acid, ribosome etc. When antibiotics attack the cell wall, the cell wall will lyse or rupture causing the content to leak out and the organisms will die. 

That's all from me~ 

[TOPIC 1] Introduction To Prokaryotes

Assalamualaikum w.b.t. 

This e-Portfolio 'format' has changed from per week to per topic. I like per week better to be honest so that I don't forget what we have learnt but it's ok, I will manage. Hehe. 

It was a short chapter and it mainly comprised of the past semesters lecture notes. Some of the slides though, not all. 

To me, it was like a refresh or a revision to remind us again (again and again and again and it goes on. Haha) about prokaryotes; their characteristics, types, functions and the differences between bacteria and archaea.

The last time we learn about prokaryotes; which is also the 'first' time, was during first semester if I'm not mistaken. I have to admit, I do remember some of it and forgot some~

This topic shows a sneak peak on what will be discussed more in the following topics. 

Since only bacteria and archaea are grouped as prokaryotes, it is important to know the traits of the two organisms in order to distinguish them. 

Archaea is known as the organism that can survive in extreme conditions; which is also known as extremophile. There are halophiles, thermophiles, acidophiles etc based on the environment they are living. 

However, there is a bacteria that can withstand extreme condition but it is not an archaea. So how do you differentiate them? That's what we're going to learn. 

In conclusion, we are going to look through the properties that the bacteria have but not present in archaea and vice verca. There is not only one characteristics though, there are a few of them such as their cell wall components and membrane lipids. 

That's all from me~

[14th September 2015] [WEEK 2] "Schedule Change"

Assalamualaikum w.b.t 

I managed to survived Week 1, thankfully. Hehe. 

Other courses are starting to get too much on my plate with the never ending assignments. BMY3103 haven't give us any killer task, yet. (Hehe) 

Me and some of the classmates were late to class this week. Due to some changes in our time table, our Inorganic Chemistry Lab had to take the time slot originally for BMY3103. And our Microbiology class had to be held a little late, and end a little late too, of course. 

Dr. Wan suggested that class start at 11.15am, so that everyone can take their time walking to FBSB. 

I will try to arrive in time next week! 

So this week, we learn a bit of this and that about prokaryotes. Dr. Wan asked us to access Padlet that she had created. The title : "Microbial Physiology" in which Dr. Wan want us to search something; anything! about prokaryotes that may be useful for our knowledge. It can be in any form such as video, articles and journals. 

Our group found something about prokaryotes that is related to their genetics. In which the researches used genetic sequencing to see the diversity of prokaryotes. It turn out that there are few types of prokaryotes that we should know other than the general bacteria and archaea that we already know.

There are bacteroidetes, firmicutes, actinobacteria, proteobacteria and other phyla. 

Other groups had also found interesting informations about prokaryotes such as... Hmmm. One of the group mentioned something about the relation between prokaryotes and weight reducing.

It is basically about how the metabolism of the human body react to the normal flora in the gut. The researches are trying to understand the mechanism of the human body by observing and determining the bacteria that is present in their body. 

It is actually the same concept as isolating cultures from patients with a particular disease and grow them to see what species are the microorganisms that infect the patients; and decide whether it is the cause of a disease or not. In addition to that, we have to determine the most suitable antibiotic that will prevent their growth. The same goes to the weight reducing method using prokaryotes that the researches are trying to come out with. 

After everybody done presenting and explaining why their group picked the articles of their choices, Dr. Wan proceeded with every group have to pick a group of proteobacteria and present it on Monday~ 

In conclusion, today I learnt that other than the characteristics or prokaryotes, it is equally important to know the functions and metabolisms of prokaryotes. It is actually quite vast as their functions not only bound to medicinal value, but also to the environment, genetics and so on. I will anticipate what's more to come in this topic in order to understand more about prokaryotes. 

That's all from me. 

Adieu! :)  

[7th September 2015] [WEEK 1] "Welcome Back!"

Assalamualaikum w.b.t 

Alhamdulillah. We meet again! :D 

My feeling for today's first class was actually partially excited and partially nervous. Yes. It's a mixed feeling. Nervous because I'm afraid I already forgot some of the basic things about Microbiology that we have learnt such as the difference between prokaryotes and eukaryotes. Excited because.... Hmm I don't know what I'm excited for. Haha. Mostly because I get to meet my classmates and lecturers again! 

Oh. I'm also nervous because this semester's courses and schedule are no joke. Of course, it's going to get tougher and maybe harder; the subjects. 

Class was at 10.00am but Dr. Wan told us via WhatsApp that she will be a little late due to a meeting that she had to attend that morning. 

Today we didn't really learn anything. Dr. Wan only went through our course outline and told us that there will be three lecturers for BMY3103 this semester. Besides Dr. Wan, Dr. Amalia and Dr. Suriana (my mentor! :D) will also be teaching us. So many lecturers for one course~

I think it's going to be fun~ Just like last semester where Dr. Sieo Chin Chin taught us for the first few parts of the course (but took quite a long period to cover the topics, though). At least, we are able to see the difference and a variety teaching methods of the lecturers of our faculty. 

During today's class, Dr. Wan asked us what will we be learning. And few voices answered "physiology of microbiology" which is, yes, our course name for this semester. And Dr. Wan said "my kids can answer that too!". Hehe.

I searched on the net and it says that physiology of microbiology is the study of how the microbial cell functions biochemically.

I sometimes misunderstand the word "physiology" and "physically". They sound kind of the same, isn't it? 

Dr. Wan further elaborated that we will be focusing on prokaryotes' organelles such as the carboxysome, magnetosomes etc. I guess we will be learning about the organelles in greater depth than we did previously. 

Other than went through the course outline, Dr. Wan also briefed us about the upcoming Amazing Microbe Carnival. She already told us about the carnival through our WhatsApp group during the semester break. We will be doing something that involved 3D printing. Ha ha. I don’t even know how it will looks like, not before Dr. Wan told us today and even showed us few pictures of the posters with 3D props and also the machinery itself. I learned a new device today! 

I can’t wait to see the outcome! I mean how our 3D printing going to look like. It’s going to be a whole new experience for me~

That’s all for this week.

No class on Wednesday though, because Dr. Wan had to be at another place that morning.

Adieu! :)

14/14!

1^st June 2015, Monday

Assalamualaikum w.b.t and a very good day to you :D 

Today was the last class for BMY3102. It was held at BMF which is also where our first meeting with Dr. Wan took place. He he he.

However, today’s lesson was a bit… dull because everybody is… sleepy? Everybody was quite quiet during the whole lesson. Except when Dr. Wan was talking about something that is non-related to the lesson, only then everybody was talking and looked animated again. Haha.

Today we learnt the last two topics in BMY3102 which is Biogeochemical Cycle and Aspects of Biotechnology in Microbial Ecology.

As for Biogeochemical Cycle, there are five major cycle which involved elements that are important to the environment. There are carbon cycle, nitrogen cycle, sulphur cycle, iron cycle and manganese cycle.

I wonder if there are other element’s cycle? Hmm. I will look up about it on the Net and tell you by the end of this post. He he he.

Or I will just tell you now. Haha.  

Other than the five well-known cycles, there are also other cycles such as phosphorus cycles, oxygen cycle, water cycle and hydrogen cycle. These are all important elements in our lives and ecology. 

So.. Here are some new information I managed to obtain during class today :

• Methanogens/ methanotrophs are abundant in Klang and Banting (in Malaysia). For example : Oil palm farms

• What organisms that involved in carbon fixing? What kind of bacteria? --> Photoautotroph

• Organelles involved in carbon fixations are carboxysome and also magnetosome in magnetotactic bacteria. 

• There are few processes involved during nitrogen fixation. Other than biological fixation which is done by microbes that we have learnt in this topic, nitrogen can also be fixed by lightning which is also called atmospheric fixation. There are also industrial fixation. 

Industrial fixation : 

"Under great pressure, at a temperature of 600°C, and with the use of a catalyst, atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen (usually derived from natural gas or petroleum) can be combined to form ammonia (NH₃). Ammonia can be used directly as fertilizer, but most of its is further processed to urea and ammonium nitrate (NH₄NO₃)."

- Retrieved from http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/N/NitrogenCycle.html 

• Why do we need nitrogen cycle? To be used in fertilizers to give nutrients to plants. 

• Other than Nitrosomonas, Nitrococcus and Nitrobacter. Nitropyra can also fix nitrogen.

• Prokaryotes that can fix nitrogen is called “rhizotroph”.

• Manganese is one of the trace elements.

 What important about biogeochemical cycles is that there are elements that  needed to be recycle and broken down in order for the organisms to obtain nutrients. If you think about, if there are no microorganisms that can break down this nutrients, the nutrients will remain in the surrounding or environment and non-usable. 

Thus, when this happen, the organisms cannot obtain the much required nutrients to carry out certain reactions or to grow healthily. 

That is why microbes play a big role in our ecology as well as biogechemical cycles.

Try to imagine our life without microbes to help carry out all this cycles! (°□°)

For second part of the lecture, we went on with Aspects of Biotechnology in Microbial Ecology. The last lesson!

 Points that I managed to jot down during lecture~ :

• Why do the farmers burn the residues of the farms after harvesting? --> To prevent growth of fungal pathogen. Although it is the fastest way to get rid of crops residues, it is also the most un-environmental friendly and actually harmful to our biosphere. 

• Instead of burning the crops residues, we should bury them. It is more environmental friendly that way.

• Where can we find Salmonella?  --> In raw meat or poultry (chicken) and eggs.

• What is “eutrophication”? --> It is a condition in which the nutrients are high especially in lakes and ponds that can cause pollution such as algae bloom and red tide.

• Mercury is also a heavy metal.

• Methyl mercury can also cause cancer.

• Microorganisms act as an indicator in pollution. For example : when E. coli are present, it indicates that the water source is contaminated with stools. This can be due to the water not properly treated.

• How to culture microorganisms in big amount/scale? --> Using a tank called “bioreactor”. It functions to produce a large scale of microbes. Dr. Wan even suggested that we go for a trip to visit the bioreactor sometime during third semester where everybody happily agreed aside from the continuous request to go to a chocolate factory too but countered by Dr. Wan when she asked “Tell me what microbes involved in production of chocolate?”. Haha. I myself do not know.

Actually there are microbes involved! I searched about it. Just now. He he he. 

"Chocolate Products

Microorganisms are also used in the production of finished chocolate products. Alpha amylase obtained from Aspergillus is used to hydrolyze starch for chocolate syrup and invertase from Saccharomyces is used to hydrolyze sucrose in filling mixtures to make soft-centered chocolate-covered candies."

- Retrieved from http://www.smccd.edu/accounts/case/chocolate.html 

Microbes involved in production of chocolates are yeast, lactic acid bacteria, acetic acid bacteria, aerobic spore forming bacteria and filamentous fungi. In which the microbes have their respective functions. 

Yeast -> important to enhance fermentation by bacteria. They convert sugars, such as sucrose, glucose, and fructose, into ethanol and CO2, decrease the acidity of the pulp by using up citric acid, and produce aromatic compounds, which contribute to the chocolate aroma and are important to development of flavor.
Lactic acid bacteria -> The Bacillus spp. found during the aerobic phase of fermentation have been found to be responsible for the flavoring of chocolate.

- Retrieved from http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Chocolate 

• Biodegradation --> Breakdown of big molecules to small molecules.

• Oil-degrading bacteria are bacteria that can produce mycolic acid.

• Recalcitrant --> Molecule compound that cannot be degraded.

• "Blue baby" syndrome is a disease caused by high number of nitrogen in haemoglobin.

"Blue baby" syndrome 

"Potentially fatal blood disorder in infants under six months of age which is also called methemoglobinemia in which there is a reduction in the oxygen-carrying capacity of blood."

• As we all know, bioremediation is a process where we use living organisms to enhance the degradation of pollutants. Thus, the organisms that are going to be used must be ensured that they are not contaminated. For example : a pure culture or mixed cultures that its’ identities are known.

• “Superbug”? --> Microorganisms that are resistant to drugs and antibiotics.

In conclusion, microorganisms are everywhere around us and they are important in our lives and to the environment. Based on this topic, I can see that they are very important to our ecology because there are some microbes that are the cause of pollution (pollutants) but they arealso some of them that can detect the pollution such as lichen. Even so, microbes are also the ones who can reduce pollution! 

Hence, it is important to know the microorganisms’ capabilities in order to have the best solution to ensure pollution are at low levels. 

It's a wrap! See you guys in next semester. In shaa Allah. :D 

P/S Pray for our success in the upcoming final examination! 

WEEK 12 [SEMESTER 2]

Wednesday, 20th May 2015

Class started at 8.30am today and this morning some of my classmates were talking about me in our Whatsapp group. Haha. I didn't meant it as gossiping or some sort but it was because Erra saw me got off the bus at Fakulti Sains and not at the library (which is the supposed bus stop to get off because it is nearer to FBSB). I only read the messages when I arrived at the class though. 

I didn't know there was/were my classmate(s) on the same bus as me this morning. Hehe. 

I would like to explain myself. I got off the bus at the "wrong" bus stop because I went to print the notes for today's lesson, mates~ I'm sorry for my actions that made Erra confused. Hahaa. 


Some new things I managed to jot down today! 

(But there are some things that Dr Wan mentioned today that I already heard of because she already told us about it during last semester but I will still include it. Hehe)


MICROBIAL GROUPS 

• How to know the suitable temperature for growth of organisms? --> Based on their natural environment which is where you first isolate them.

• How to isolate microorganisms? Identify habitat > Prepare medium > Isolate the microorganism

• Why do we want to isolate microorganism? --> To get pure culture in order to obtain single colony > When we have obtained single colony, subculture it (transfer it to a fresh new medium)

• Why do microorganisms grow? --> Because they get nutrient from the environment that is favourable for their growth or resemble their natural environment. 

• Gnotobiotic animals are animals that are germ free

"Gnotobiote : 

Germ-free animal infected with one or more microorganisms in order to study the microorganism in a controlled situation."

- The American Heritage® Medical Dictionary Copyright © 2007, 2004 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved.

•  Biocontrol agent --> Use other living organism to control growth of other organisms, either by killing them or inhibit their growth.

• “Daun kapal terbang”  has antimicrobial properties. (I honestly never heard of this leaf, let alone seen one x’D)



"Pokok kapal terbang"

• Where can we find biofilm? Examples : Eyes (Not on our eyes but on contact lenses) and surface of teeth.

• When do we use trace elements? --> Act as cofactors in enzymes. 

• There are a lot of other examples of nitrogen fixing bacteria other than the usual Azotobacter, Rhizobium, Nitrosomonas. For example ; diazotroph (Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes). 

• K strategist is better than r strategist because K strategist although reproduce slower than r strategist, it is larger which is easier to compete for nutrients. Also, since it is large, it has a larger or more storage to keep more food.

• r strategist although reproduce faster than K strategist, it has bad aspects too due to the short generation time. They are smaller in size and also die faster. 

• Autochthonus --> The origins. Just like how aborigin is the residents before us in our place right now. 

 "Formed or originating in the place where found."

• Allochthonus --> 

 "Found in a place other than where they and their constituents were formed."

• Allogenic succession occurs beyond our control and due to nature such as flood and earthquakes. 

• Biofilms are very sensitive to pollution, same as lichen. Thus, when lichen and biofilm  are present at a certain place, it indicates that there is no pollution in that place.

We have finished on the topic of "Microbial Groups" and proceeded to "Principle of Ecology" where Dr Wan showed us the powtoon video that was made by Radin in which he is in the assigned group to make learning materials for that topic. 

We opened the Quizlet that was prepared and attempted to do the quiz. But unfortunately, the Wi-Fi connection in Biotech 1 today was a bit slow.... Everybody was having trouble to connect to the Internet (that includes me too. Haha) 

We managed to cover just a little bit about the new topic with Dr Wan. Dr Wan said that the idea of the assignment is that it require us to read the learning materials prepared by fellow classmates in various forms such as posters, Quizlet etc. After reading the prepared informations, we have to answer quizzes and submit the answer to Dr Wan. I agree with this method since we will are given questions. So.... in order to answer the questions, we of course have to read the notes beforehand or do it while referring the notes. Either way, we will still be learning something. Unless you  copied the answer from friends. Ahaaaa~~~~ That will be less 'fun', I think. The feeling of finding the answer yourself is more satisfactory in my opinion. Hehe. 

Thursday, 21st May 2015 

Our replacement class are supposed to be held today at 4-6pm but due to some circumstances, our usual class on Friday had to be replaced too. 

So, today we had class at 9-11am but the class at 4-6pm was not held because Dr Wan wants to do it on 1st June which is in two weeks time. That made our day less hectic. Hehe. Because if the 4-6pm class was to be held today, our schedule would be like this --> 9-11am BMY3102 | 12-1pm BBI2423 | 2-4pm BCH | 4-6pm BMY3102 ahha! Packed isn't it?! 

But then again, Dr Wan mentioned yesterday... or was it today.. I'm not sure x'D that she had meeting and classes too non-stop from early morning till night. Which is more packed than our schedules. She looks fine and happy during class though. 

We, her students should make Dr Wan as our role model who managed to look and actually IS! energetic :D 

Class started a bit late because some of the classmates were late~

We managed to do some activities today that required us to use our laptop in which one of the activity was... Look at Choy's group Thinglink because he just posted this morning. 

I managed to look at it for a little while. Went through one of the articles about bioremediation. But afterwards... The Wi-Fi failed me~~~~ Haha. 

After Dr Wan finished lecturing on Principal of Ecology, she asked us to share on her Padlet what do we know about 'Biogeochemical Cycles'. 

The link is Padlet.com/zuhainis/cycles

However! 

Here are some points that I managed to jot down today! or new things that I learnt today~~ :D 

PRINCIPAL OF ECOLOGY

• Microbial loop

"The microbial loop is a depiction of the microbial food web. The pathway starts with dissolved organic matter (DOM) which makes its way through various trophic levels ultimately to the highest trophic levels. This is relevant in aquatic and soil systems. Organisms involved in the microbial loop include DOM, bacteria, micro flagellates, protozoa, nematodes, ciliates, phytoplankton and various other nutrient cycling bacteria [3]. The microbial loop is ecologically significant because it is directly involved in nutrient cycling and primary production of biomass ultimately effecting large-scale ecological functions." 

-  http://microbewiki.kenyon.edu/index.php/Microbial_loop

• Examples of negative interactions in ecology is? ----> Parasitism, prey-predator, competition. 

• Why phytoplankton resides on the surface of water? ----> They are photoautotroph which means that they require sunlight in order to carry out photosynthesis to produce oxygen. 

• Phytoplankton (producer) > Bacteria (phytoplankton die and become dissolved organic matter > Protozoa > Zooplankton > Bigger organisms (example : fish) 

• Hydrosphere --> waterland while lithosphere ---> land

• How do microbes contribute to revolution? They remove weaker species through infections. But how exactly they do that? Through interactions such as prey-predator and competition. From what I understand about these interactions is that the 'winner' will have the...hmmm advantage to secure the habitat or the females (for mating of animals) while the 'loser' have to leave and find another place for them to inhabit. I guess the concept is applicable to microbes too. 

In conclusion~~ 

For this topic (Principle of Ecology) --> It is important to know and understands the terms used such as ecology, habitat, ecological niche, biosphere, population etc. 

Other than that, it is also important to know the hierarchy of ecology in order to see how they interact with each other. From organisms that are within the same species to their environments, be it abiotic or non-abiotic. We can see that all the organisms in this world are interconnected with each other starting from organisms/species > population > communities > ecosystems > biosphere.  

Also, the roles of microbes are very very very important for us as Microbiology student to know since other people who don't study this field don't even realize the microbes big contributions to our ecology despite their small, no not small, but microscopic features! Only we understand them. Hahaa

And lastly, we should know some of the methods that can help to ensure the ecosystem is maintained and remain safe and sound from damage and irresponsible acts. 

WEEK 11 [SEMESTER2]

Assalamualaikum and a very good day to you. :D

I will post this entry using the “New Things I Learnt Today” method~

Wednesday, 13th May 2015

• The ringworms that you can see on cats is one of the example of fungal infection nearest to us.

• How do we differentiate fungi? We differentiate them based on their spore formation. Each type of fungi have different sporulation method.

• Thallus (vegetative cell of fungi) is made from mycelium and it will germinate when the condition or environment is favourable for its growth.

• The first organ that fungi will enter is the lung (because we breathe air) and it can cause lung disease which is also called as “mycosis” (any disease that is caused by fungi).

• Why do the fungi colonies appear in different colour when grown in a petri dish (for example : the middle part is darker in colour compared to the outer part). The colour changes depending on how long they have grown. The fungi colonies that appear more bright is the most current growing fungi. Like how we human have young and old people but fungi don't use these terms of course!

• Some fungi can produce exudate in which it is produced only at certain times. The function of the exudate is still unknown and under research.

• How to stain fungi? By using lactophenol cotton blue stain.

• There are two types of hyphae namely septate hyphae and non-septate hyphae. The difference is the presence of septa in septate hyphae that act as a separator.

• “Fungi that grow together within plant”. What does it called? "Endophytes" in which it gives benefits to plants.

• When will the sporangiospore dispersed? When the sporangium has matured in which the membranes will break releasing the sporangiospore.

• How to pronounce “myxomycota” correctly? --> “Mikso-mycota” <--

• One of the harmful effect of fungi is that they can cause asthma to humans. It can cause hypersensitivity that will lead to asthma. The fungi that cause this is called “fungal allergen”.

• How do we obtain antifungal drug? From fungi and some bacteria.

• Mycoremediation : Using fungi to treat pollution 

P/S I personally like it how Mashi present her part of the presentation. It's memorable. I still remember her part which is "deuteromycota a fungi imperfecti." Why? It is because they lack sexual reproduction~ I think can remember this until final examination honestly. Hahaa. So random! 

Thursday, 14th May 2015

Our class was held in DKU which is a bit spacey and Dr Wan said she don't like it. Haha. It was okay for me that day. 

Today the remaining of the groups that haven't present yet presented today which is on protozoa and lastly virus. 

Below are some of the points that I got today: 

• The difference between oogamy and heterogamy -> oogamy ; 1 motile & 1 non-motile. heterogamy ; both motile/non-motile. 

• The difference between isogamy and heterogamy -> The sizes of the male and female gametes. 

• An interesting example of chlorophyta which is watermelon snow! Additional information --> 

"Watermelon snow, also called snow algae, red snow, or blood snow, is Chlamydomonas nivalis, a species of green algae containing a secondary red carotenoid pigment (astaxanthin) in addition to chlorophyll. " 

-http://www.netlibrary.net/article/whebn0004337752/watermelon%20snow

Today's presentations by fellow classmates were easy to understand. I was able to listen well :D But I usually didn't write down much when the classmates are presenting. I'm... not sure sure why. Hence, the short and little amount of points that I can include for this today's lesson. It's either I spaced out or busy looking at their faces/gestures unlike when the lecturers are teaching. He.. He.. Can't wait to listen to Dr Wan's lecture about the topics above~

I guess that's all from me. Thank you!